WORDS 2

4. How to spot a liar

CONTEXT: However much we may abhor it, deception comes naturally to all living things. Birds do it by feigning injury to lead hungry predators away from nesting young. Spider crabs do it by disguise: adorning themselves with strips of kelp and other debris, they pretend to be something they are not – and so escape their enemies. Nature amply rewards successful deceivers by allowing them to survive long enough to mate and reproduce.

abhor (v) /æbˈhɔːr/ to hate a way of behaving or thinking, often because you think it is not moral: ghét, khinh miệt

adorn /ə’dɔ:n/ 1. tô điểm, trang điểm, trang trí, trang hoàng.

kelp /kelp/ 1. (thực vật học) tảo bẹ

debris /’debri:/ 1. mảnh vỡ, mảnh vụn. 2. vôi gạch đổ nát.

amply (adv) /ˈæm.pli/ in a way that is more than enough:

CONTEXT: So it may come as no surprise to learn that human beings- who, according to psychologist Gerald Johnson of the University of South California, or lied to about 200 times a day, roughly one untruth every 5 minutes- often deceive for exactly the same reasons: to save their own skins or to get something they can’t get by other means.

deceive /di’si:v/ 1. lừa dối, đánh lừa, lừa đảo, lừa gạt. 2. làm thất vọng.

to save their own skins: cứu lấy bản thân

by other means: bằng cách khác

But knowing how to catch deceit can be just as important a survival skill as knowing how to tell a lie and get away with it. A person able to spot falsehood quickly is unlikely to be swindled by an unscrupulous business associate or hoodwinked by a devious spouse.

deceit: /di’si:t/ 1. mưu gian, mánh lới, mánh khoé gian dối. 2. sự lừa dối, sự đánh lừa, sự lừa đảo, sự lừa gạt. 3. bề ngoài giả dối.

get away with: thoát khỏi việc bị bắt, bị chỉ trích hoặc bị trừng phạt vì đã làm sai điều gì đó

swindle (v,n) /’swindl/ 1. lừa, bịp

unscrupulous (a)  /ʌnˈskruː.pjə.ləs/ behaving in a way that is dishonest or unfair in order to get what you want: gian dối chiếm đoạt

hoodwink (v) /ˈhʊd.wɪŋk/ to deceive or trick someone:lừa dối

devious (a) /ˈdiː.vi.əs/  Devious people or plans and methods are dishonest, often in a complicated way, but often also clever and successful: thủ đoạn, ranh ma

spouse (n) husband or wife

Luckily, nature provides more than enough clues to trap dissemblers in their own tangled webs- if you know where to look. By closely observing facial expressions, body language and tone of voice, practically anyone can recognise the tell-tale signs of lying. Researchers are even programming computers – like those used on Lie Detector -to get at the truth by analysing the same physical cues available to the naked eye and ear. “With the proper training, many people can learn to reliably detect lies,” says Paul Ekman, professor of psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, who has spent the past 15 years studying the secret art of deception.

dissembler (v) to hide your real intentions and feelings or the facts

dissembler (n) 1. người giả vờ, người giả trá, người giả đạo đức.

tangled (a) 1. rối, lộn xộn.

tell-tale (a) /ˈtel.teɪl/ allowing a secret to become known: lộ ra, cho thấy

detect (v)  /dɪˈtekt/ to notice something that is partly hidden or not clear, or to discover something, especially using a special method: phát hiện

naked eye: mắt trần

In order to know what kind of Lies work best, successful liars need to accurately assess other people’s emotional states. Ackman’s research shows that this same emotional intelligence is essential for good lie detectors, too. The emotional state to watch out for is stress, the conflict most liars feel between the truth and what they actually say and do.

Accurately (adv) /ˈæk.jə.rət.li/ in a way that is correct, exact, and without any mistakes: chính xác

Essential  /ɪˈsen.ʃəl/ necessary or needed: cần thiết

Even high-tech lie detectors don’t detect lies as such; they merely detect the physical cues of emotions, which may or may not correspond to what the person being tested is saying. Polygraphs, for instance, measure respiration, heart rate and skin conductivity, which tend to increase when people are nervous – as they usually are when lying. Nervous people typically perspire, and the salts contained in perspiration conducts electricity. That’s why sudden leap in skin conductivity indicates nervousness -about getting caught, perhaps -which makes, in turn, suggest that someone is being economical with the truth. On the other hand, it might also mean that the lights in the television Studio are too hot- which is one reason polygraph tests are inadmissible in court. “Good lie detectors don’t rely on a single thing” says Ekma, but interpret clusters of verbal and non-verbal clues that suggest someone might be lying.”

polygraph (n) /ˈpɒl.i.ɡrɑːf/  a piece of electronic equipment used to try to discover if someone is telling lies

Respiration (n)  /ˌres.pɪˈreɪ.ʃən/ sự hô hấp

perspire (v) toát hồ hôi

inadmissible (a)  /ˌɪn.ədˈmɪs.ə.bəl/ unable to be accepted in a law court

The clues are written all over the face. Because the musculature of the face is directly connected to the areas of the brain that processes emotion, the countenance can be a window to the soul. Neurological studies even suggest that genuine emotions travel different pathways through the brain than insincere ones. If a patient paralyzed by stroke on one side of the face, for example, is asked to smile deliberately, only the mobile side of the mouth is raised. But tell that same person a funny joke, and the patient breaks into a full and spontaneous smile. Very few people -most notably, actors and politicians- are able to consciously control all of their facial expressions. Lies can often be caught when the liars true feelings briefly leak through the mask of deception. We don’t think before we feel, Ekman says. “Expressions tend to show up on the face before we’re even conscious of experiencing an emotion.”

musculature: the position and structure of the muscles

countenance (n)  /ˈkaʊn.tən.əns/ the appearance or expression of someone’s face

neurological (a) /ˌnjʊə.rəˈlɒdʒ.ɪ.kəl/ relating to nerves: thần kinh, thuộc hệ thần kinh

deliberately (adv)  /dɪˈlɪb.ər.ət.li/ intentionally, slowly and carefully

spontaneous (a) /spɒnˈteɪ.ni.əs/  happening or done in a natural, often sudden way, without any planning or without being forced: tự phát

consciously /ˈkɒn.ʃəs.li/ in a way that involves noticing that a particular thing exists or is present: có ý thức

One of the most difficult facial expressions to fake- or conceal, if it’s genuinely felt – is sadness. When someone is truly sad, the forehead wrinkles with grief and the inner corners of the eyebrows are pulled up. Fewer than 15% of the people Ekman tested were able to produce this eyebrow movement voluntarily. By contrast, the lowering of the eyebrows associated with an angry scowl can be replicated at will but almost everybody. “ If someone claims they are sad and the inner corners of their eyebrows don’t go up, Ekmam says, the sadness is probably false.”

conceal (v)  /kənˈsiːl/ to prevent something from being seen or known about: che giấu

genuinely (adv)  /ˈdʒen.ju.ɪn.li/ really and sincerely: thật

voluntarily (adv) /ˈvɒl.ən.trəl.i/ in a voluntary way (= done, made, or given willingly): tự nguyện

replicate (v) /ˈrep.lɪ.keɪt/ to make or do something again in exactly the same way

The smile, on the other hand, is one of the easiest facial expressions to counterfeit. It takes just two muscles -the zygomaticus major muscles that extend from the cheekbones to the corners of the lips- to produce a grin. But there’s a catch. A genuine smile affects not only the corners of the lips but also the orbicularis oculi, the muscle around the eye that produces the distinctive “crow’s feet” associated with people who laugh a lot. A counterfeit grin can be unmasked if the corners of the lips go up, the eyes crinkle,  but the inner corners of the eyebrows are not lowered, a movement controlled by the orbicularis oculi that is difficult to fake. The absence of lowered eyebrows is one reason why the smile looks so strained and stiff.

counterfeit (v) /ˈkaʊn.tə.fɪt/ made to look like the original of something, usually for dishonest or illegal purposes: làn giả

zygomaticus (n) /zaɪ.ɡəʊˈmæt.ɪk.əs/ a set of muscles in the cheek: cơ gò má

grin (v,n) /ɡrɪn/ to smile a wide smile, a wide smile: cười teo toét

orbicularis (a)  /ɔː.bɪk.juˈlɑː.rɪs/ relating to muscles found in the eye or the mouth: cơ vòng

oculus (pl) oculi /ˈɒk.jə.ləs/ a Latin word meaning “eye”, used in medical names and descriptions

5. Being Left-handed in a Right-handed World

CONTEXT: The probability that two right-handed people would have a left-handed child is only about 9.5 percent. The chance rises to 19.5 percent if one parent is a lefty and 26 percent if both parents are left-handed. The preference, however, could also stem from an infant’s imitation of his parents. To test genetic influence, starting in the 1970s British biologist Marian Annett of the University of Leicester hypothesized that no single gene determines handedness. Rather, during fetal development, a certain molecular factor helps to strengthen the brain’s left hemisphere, which increases the probability that the right hand will be dominant, because the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.

hypothesize (v) /haɪˈpɒθ.ə.saɪz/ to give a possible but not yet proved explanation for something: giả thuyết rằng, cho rằng

molecular (n) /məˈlek.jə.lər/ relating to molecules (= the simplest units of a chemical substance): vật lí) (thuộc) phân tử.

vice versa: /ˌvaɪs ˈvɜː.sə/ used to say that what you have just said is also true in the opposite order: ngược lại

dominant (a) /ˈdɒm.ɪ.nənt/ more important, strong, or noticeable than anything else of the same type: át, trội, có ưu thế hơn, có ảnh hưởng lớn, chi phối.

CONTEXT: Among the minority of people who lack this factor, handedness develops entirely by chance. Research conducted on twins complicates the theory, however. One in fivesets of identical twins involves one right-handed and one left-handed person, despite the fact that their genetic material is the same. Genes, therefore, are not solely responsible for handedness.

entirely (adv) /ɪnˈtaɪə.li/ whole or complete, with nothing missing: hoàn toàn

complicate /ˈkɒm.plɪ.keɪt/ to make something more difficult to deal with, do, or understand: làm phức tạp, làm rắc rối.

solely (adv) /səʊlɪ/ being one only; single: duy nhất độc nhất

CONTEXT: Genetic theory is also undermined by results from Peter Hepper and his team at Queen’s University in Belfast, Ireland. In 2004 the psychologists used ultrasound to show that by the 15th week of pregnancy, fetuses already have a preference as to which thumb they suck. In most cases, the preference continued after birth. At 15 weeks, though, the brain does not yet have control over the body’s limbs.

undermine (v) /ˌʌn.dəˈmaɪn/ to make someone less confident, less powerful, or less likely to succeed, or to make something weaker, often gradually: làm hao mòn, phá ngầm, phá hoại, đục khoét.

ultrasound /ˈʌl.trə.saʊnd/ special sound waves used in such processes as examining organs inside the body and directing the route of submarines: siêu âm, sóng siêu âm, âm thanh có tần số siêu âm.

fetus (n) a young human being or animal before birth, after the organs have started to develop: bào thai

speculate (v) /ˈspek.jə.leɪt/ to guess possible answers to a question when you do not have enough information to be certain: suy đoán, đưa ra ý kiến này ý kiến nọ

predetermination (n) /ˌpriː.dɪˌtɜː.mɪˈneɪ.ʃən/ the fact that something has been decided or arranged before it happens: sự định trước, sự quyết định trước

contradict (v) /ˌkɒn.trəˈdɪkt/ (of people) to say the opposite of what someone else has said, or (of one fact or statement) to be so different from another fact or statement that one of them must be wrong: phủ nhận, mâu thuẫn với, trái với

CONTEXT: But even if these correlations were true, they did not explain what actually causes left-handedness. Furthermore, specialization on either side of the body is common among animals. Cats will favor one paw over another when fishing toys out from under the couch. Horses stomp more frequently with one hoof than the other. Certain crabs motion predominantly with the left or right claw. In evolutionary terms, focusing power and dexterity in one limb is more efficient than having to train two, four or even eight limbs equally. Yet for most animals, the preference for one side or the other is seemingly random. The overwhelming dominance of the right hand is associated only with humans. That fact directs attention toward the brain’s two hemispheres and perhaps toward language.

correlation (n) /ˌkɒr.əˈleɪ.ʃən/ a connection or relationship between two or more facts, numbers, etc.: sự tương quan.

predominantly (adv) /prɪˈdɒm.ɪ.nənt.li/ mostly or mainly: phần lớn, chủ yếu là

dexterity (n) /dekˈster.ə.ti/ the ability to perform a difficult action quickly and skilfully with the hands: sự khéo tay, sự khéo léo, tài khéo léo.

overwhelming (a) difficult to fight against, very great or very large: tràn ngập, quá mạnh, át hẳn, không chống lại được

CONTEXT: Interest in hemispheres dates back to at least 1836. That year, at a medical conference, French physician Marc Dax reported on an unusual commonality among his patients. During his many years as a country doctor, Dax had encountered more than 40 men and women for whom speech was difficult, the result of some kind of brain damage. What was unique was that every individual suffered damage to the left side of the brain. At the conference, Dax elaborated on his theory, stating that each half of the brain was responsible for certain functions and that the left hemisphere controlled speech. Other experts showed little interest in the Frenchman’s ideas. Over time, however, scientists found more and more evidence of people experiencing speech difficulties following injury to the left brain. Patients with damage to the right hemisphere most often displayed disruptions in perception or concentration.

commonality (n) /ˌkɒm.ənˈæl.ə.ti/ the fact of sharing interests, experiences, or other characteristics with someone or something:  sự tương đồng, sự phổ biến.

elaborate (v,adj) /iˈlæb.ə.reɪt/ to add more information to or explain something that you have said, containing a lot of careful detail or many detailed parts: (v1) thảo tỉ mỉ, thảo kỹ lưỡng, sửa soạn công phu, làm công phu, trau chuốt (văn), dựng lên (v2) nói thêm, cho thêm chi tiết (a) phức tạp, tỉ mỉ, kỹ lưỡng, công phu, trau chuốt, tinh vi.

perception (n) a belief or opinion, often held by many people and based on how things seem, someone’s ability to notice and understand things that are not obvious to other people: (triết học) tri giác, sự nhận thức.

asymmetry (n) /eɪˈsɪm.ə.tri/ the state of two halves, sides, or parts that are not exactly the same in shape or size: tính không đối xứng

epilepsy (n) /ˈep.ɪ.lep.si/ a condition of the brain that causes a person to become unconscious for short periods or to move in a violent and uncontrolled way: (y học) động kinh.

sever (v) /ˈsev.ər/ to break or separate, especially by cutting: chia rẽ, tách ra, cắt đứt

corpus (n) /ˈkɔː.pəs/ a collection of written or spoken material stored on a computer and used to find out how language is used, a body or the main part of an organ: (sinh vật học) thể, tập sao lục, tập văn.

corpus callosum /ˌkɔː.pəs kəˈləʊ.səm/ a wide strip of nerve fibres that connects the two halves of the brain: thể chai

bundle (n) /ˈbʌn.dəl/ a number of things that have been fastened or are held together: bọc, gói, bó

CONTEXT: In 1949 neurosurgeon Juhn Wada devised the first test to provide access to the brain’s functional organization of language. By injecting an anesthetic into the right or left carotid artery, Wada temporarily paralyzed one side of a healthy brain, enabling him to more closely study the other side’s capabilities. Based on this approach, Brenda Milner and the late Theodore Rasmussen of the Montreal Neurological Institute published a major study in 1975 that confirmed the theory that country doctor Dax had formulated nearly 140 years earlier: in 96 percent of right-handed people, language is processed much more intensely in the left hemisphere. The correlation is not as clear in lefties, however. For two thirds of them, the left hemisphere is still the most active language processor. But for the remaining third, either the right side is dominant or both sides work equally, controlling different language functions. That last statistic has slowed acceptance of the notion that the predominance of right-handedness is driven by left-hemisphere dominance in language processing.

neurosurgeon (n) /ˈnjʊə.rəʊˌsɜː.dʒən/ a doctor who performs operations involving the brain or nerves: (y học) nhà giải phẫu thần kinh

 devise (v) /dɪˈvaɪz/ to invent a plan, system, object, etc., usually using your intelligence or imagination, to use knowledge and imagination to think of or plan something: nghĩ ra, đặt (kế hoạch), sáng chế, phát minh, bày mưu, bày kế, âm mưu, mưu đồ

anesthetic (n) /ˌæn.əsˈθet.ɪk/ a drug that makes the body unable to feel pain: (y học) thuốc tê, thuốc gây mê

carotid (n) /kəˈrɒt.ɪd/ relating to the two main arteries that carry blood to the head and neck: (giải phẫu) động mạch cảnh

artery (n) /ˈɑː.tər.i/ one of the thick tubes that carry blood from the heart to other parts of the body: giải phẫu) động mạch

predominance (n) /prɪˈdɒm.ɪ.nəns/ a situation in which one person or group of people has more importance or power than others: ưu thế, thế trội

CONTEXT: It is not at all clear why language control should somehow have dragged the control of body movement with it. Some experts think one reason the left hemisphere reigns over language is because the organs of speech processing—the larynx and tongue—are positioned on the body’s symmetry axis. Because these structures were centered, it may have been unclear, in evolutionary terms, which side of the brain should control them, and it seems unlikely that shared operation would result in smooth motor activity. Language and handedness could have developed preferentially for very different reasons as well.  For example, some researchers, including evolutionary psychologist Michael C. Corballis of the University of Auckland in New Zealand, think that the origin of human speech lies in gestures. Gestures predated words and helped language emerge. If the left hemisphere began to dominate speech, it would have dominated gestures, too, and because the left brain controls the right side of the body, the right hand developed more strongly.

larynx (n) /ˈlær.ɪŋks/ an organ in humans and animals between the nose and the lungs that contains the muscles that move very quickly to create the voice or animal sounds: (giải phẫu) thanh quản.

symmetry (n) /ˈsɪm.ə.tri/ the quality of having parts that match each other, especially in a way that is attractive, or similarity of shape or contents: sự đối xứng, tính đối xứng

preferentially (adv) /ˌpref.ərˈen.ʃəl.i/ in a way that shows someone or something is preferred to others, in a way that is more likely than something else: ưu đâi, dành ưu tiên cho, được ưu đâi, được ưu tiên

predate (v) /ˌpriːˈdeɪt/ to have existed or happened before another thing: có trước, xuất hiện trước

CONTEXT: Perhaps we will know more soon. In the meantime, we can revel in what, if any, differences handedness brings to our human talents. Popular wisdom says right-handed, left-brained people excel at logical, analytical thinking. Left handed, right-brained individuals are thought to possess more creative skills and may be better at combining the functional features emergent in both sides of the brain. Yet some neuroscientists see such claims as pure speculation. Fewer scientists are ready to claim that left-handedness means greater creative potential. Yet lefties are prevalent among artists, composers and the generally acknowledged great political thinkers. Possibly if these individuals are among the lefties whose language abilities are evenly distributed between hemispheres, the intense interplay required could lead to unusual mental capabilities.

revel (v) /ˈrev.əl/ to dance, drink, sing, etc. at a party or in public, especially in a noisy way

analytical /ˌæn.əˈlɪt.ɪ.kəl/ examining or liking to examine things in detail, in order to discover more about them: dùng phép phân tích

emergent (a) /ɪˈmɜr·dʒənt/ starting to exist or to become known: nổi lên, lồi ra, hiện ra, nổi bật lên, rõ nét

prevalent (adj) /ˈprev.əl.ənt/ existing very commonly or happening often: thường thấy, thịnh hành, đang lưu hành

interplay (n) /ˈɪn.tə.pleɪ/ the effect that two or more things have on each other: ảnh hưởng lẫn nhau, sự tác động lẫn nhau

CONTEXT: Or perhaps some lefties become highly creative simply because they must be more clever to get by in our right-handed world. This battle, which begins during the very early stages of childhood, may lay the groundwork for exceptional achievements.

groundwork (n) /ˈɡraʊnd.wɜːk/ work that is done as a preparation for work that will be done later: nền, cơ sở

6. What is a dinosaur?

CONTEXT: Although the name dinosaur is derived from the Greek for “terrible lizard”, dinosaurs were not, in fact, lizards at all. Like lizards, dinosaurs are included in the class Reptilia, or reptiles, one of the five main classes of Vertebrata, animals with backbones. However, at the next level of classification, within reptiles, significant differences in the skeletal anatomy of lizards and dinosaurs have led scientists to place these groups of animals into two different superorders: Lepidosauria, or lepidosaurs, and Archosauria, or archosaurs.

derived (a) /dɪˈraɪvd/coming from or caused by something else: bắt nguồn từ

CONTEXT: Classified as lepidosaurs are lizards and snakes and their prehistoric ancestors. Included among the archosaurs, or “ruling reptiles”, are prehistoric and modern crocodiles, and the now extinct thecodonts, pterosaurs and dinosaurs. Palaeontologists believe that both dinosaurs and crocodiles evolved, in the later years of the Triassic Period (c. 248-208 million years ago), from creatures called pseudosuchian thecodonts. Lizards, snakes and different types of thecodont are believed to have evolved earlier in the Triassic Period from reptiles known as eosuchians.

The most important skeletal differences between dinosaurs and other archosaurs are in the bones of the skull, pelvis and limbs. Dinosaur skulls are found in a great range of shapes and sizes, reflecting the different eating habits and lifestyles of a large and varied group of animals that dominated life on Earth for an extraordinary 165 million years. However, unlike the skulls of any other known animals, the skulls of dinosaurs had two long bones known as vomers. These bones extended on either side of the head, from the front of the snout to the level of the holes on the skull known as the antorbital fenestra, situated in front of the dinosaur’s orbits or eyesockets.

pelvis (n) /ˈpel.vɪs/the bones that form a bowl-shaped structure in the area below the waist at the top of the legs, and to which the leg bones and spine are joined: xương chậu

vomers (n) /ˈvəʊ.mər/ a thin, flat bone that forms the nasal septum (= the part of the nose that separates the nostrils): (giải phẫu) xương lá mía.

orbits (n) /ˈɔː.bɪt/ he round hollow area surrounding the eye: hốc mắt

CONTEXT: All dinosaurs, whether large or small, quadrupedal or bipedal, fleet-footed or slow-moving, shared a common body plan. Identification of this plan makes it possible to differentiate dinosaurs from any other types of animal, even other archosaurs. Most significantly, in dinosaurs, the pelvis and femur had evolved so that the hind limbs were held vertically beneath the body, rather than sprawling out to the sides like the limbs of a lizard. The femur of a dinosaur had a sharply in-turned neck and a ball-shaped head, which slotted into a fully open acetabulum or hip socket. A supra-acetabular crest helped prevent dislocation of the femur. The position of the knee joint, aligned below the acetabulum, made it possible for the whole hind limb to swing backwards and forwards. This unique combination of features gave dinosaurs what is known as a “fully improved gait”. Evolution of this highly efficient method of walking also developed in mammals, but among reptiles it occurred only in dinosaurs.

quadrupedal (a) /ˈkwɒd.drə.pedəl/ walking on four legs, or relating to this movement:: thuộc động vật bốn chân

bipedal/, (a) baɪˈpiː.dəl/ walking on two legs, or relating to this movement: thuộc động vật hai chân

femur (n) /ˈfiː.mər/ the long bone in the upper part of the leg: (giải phẫu) xương đùi

acetabulum /ˌæs.əˈtæb.jə.ləm/ a cup-shaped structure on either side of the pelvis where the hip bone sits: hốc xương chậu

suprascapular (n) /ˌsuː.prəˈskæp.jə.lər/ above the scapula (= a large, flat bone on each side of the back below the shoulder): xương trên xương vai

scapula (n) /ˈskæp.jə.lə/ xương vai

gait (n) /ɡeɪt/ a particular way of walking: dáng đi.

CONTEXT: For the purpose of further classification, dinosaurs are divided into two orders: Saurischia, or saurischian dinosaurs, and Ornithischia, or ornithischian dinosaurs. This division is made on the basis of their pelvic anatomy. All dinosaurs had a pelvic girdle with each side comprised of three bones: the pubis, ilium and ischium. However, the orientation of these bones follows one of two patterns. In saurischian dinosaurs, also known as lizard-hipped dinosaurs, the pubis points forwards, as is usual in most types of reptile. By contrast, in ornithischian, or bird-hipped, dinosaurs, the pubis points backwards towards the rear of the animal, which is also true of birds.

girdle (v,n) /ˈɡɜː.dəl/ (v) to surround something, (n) a piece of underwear for women, worn around the waist and bottom, that stretches to shape the body, a long strip of cloth worn tied around the waist, especially in the past, something that surrounds another thing, the ring of bones at the shoulder supporting the arms or at the pelvis supporting the legs

CONTEXT: Of the two orders of dinosaurs, the Saurischia was the larger and the first to evolve. It is divided into two suborders: Therapoda, or therapods, and Sauropodomorpha, or sauropodomorphs. The therapods, or “beast feet”, were bipedal, predatory carnivores. They ranged in size from the mighty Tyrannosaurus rex, 12m long, 5.6m tall and weighing an estimated 6.4 tonnes, to the smallest known dinosaur, Compsognathus, a mere 1.4m long and estimated 3kg in weight when fully grown. The sauropodomorphs, or “lizard feet forms”, included both bipedal and quadrupedal dinosaurs. Some sauropodomorphs were carnivorous or omnivorous but later species were typically herbivorous. They included some of the largest and best-known of all dinosaurs, such as Diplodocus, a huge quadruped with an elephant-like body, a long, thin tail and neck that gave it a total length of 27m, and a tiny head.

Ornithischian dinosaurs were bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores. They are now usually divided into three suborders: Ornithipoda, Thyreophora and Marginocephalia. The ornithopods, or “bird feet”, both large and small, could walk or run on their long hind legs, balancing their body by holding their tails stiffly off the ground behind them. An example is Iguanodon, up to 9m long, 5m tall and weighing 4.5 tonnes. The thyreophorans, or “shield bearers”, also known as armoured dinosaurs, were quadrupeds with rows of protective bony spikes, studs, or plates along their backs and tails. They included Stegosaurus, 9m long and weighing 2 tonnes.

The marginocephalians, or “margined heads”, were bipedal or quadrupedal ornithschians with a deep bony frill or narrow shelf at the back of the skull. An example is Triceratops, a rhinoceros-like dinosaur, 9m long, weighing 5.4 tonnes and bearing a prominent neck frill and three large horns.

bearer (n) /ˈbeə.rər/ a person whose job is to carry something, or a person who brings a message: người đem, người mang, người cầm (thư, điện…), người khiêng, người vác, người tải

prominent (a) /ˈprɒm.ɪ.nənt/ very well known and important, something that is in a prominent position can easily be seen or noticed, if something is prominent, it sticks out from a surface or can be seen easily: If something is prominent, it sticks out from a surface or can be seen easily: xuất chúng, lỗi lạc, nổi tiếng (người), lồi lên, nhô lên,  đáng chú ý, nổi bật.